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Table of Contents

Introduction xxiv

Chapter 1 Introduction to Wireless LANs 1
The Wireless LAN Market 2
Today`s Wireless LAN Standards 3
Applications of Wireless LANs 3
Access Role 4
Network Extension 5
Building-to-Building Connectivity 5
Last Mile Data Delivery 6
Mobility 7
Small Office-Home Office 8
Summary 10
Key Terms 11
Review Questions 12
Answers to Review Questions 15

Chapter 2 Radio Frequency (RF) Fundamentals 17
Radio Frequency 18
RF Behaviors 19
Gain 19
Loss 19
Reflection 20
Refraction 21
Diffraction 22
Scattering 23
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) 23
VSWR Measurements 24
Effects of VSWR 24
Solutions to VSWR 25
Principles of Antennas 25
Line of Sight (LOS) 25
Fresnel Zone 26
Obstructions 27
Antenna Gain 27
Intentional Radiator 27
Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power (EIRP) 28
Radio Frequency Mathematics 29
Units of Measure 30
Watts (W) 30
Milliwatt 30
Decibels 30
dBm 32
dBi 34
Accurate Measurements 35
Key Terms 37
Review Questions 38
Answers to Review Questions 43

Chapter 3 Spread Spectrum Technology 45
Introducing Spread Spectrum 46
Narrow Band Transmission 46
Spread Spectrum Technology 47
Uses of Spread Spectrum 48
Wireless Local Area Networks 48
Wireless Personal Area Networks 49
Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks 49
FCC Specifications 49
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) 50
How FHSS Works 50
Effects of Narrow Band Interference 51
Frequency Hopping Systems 51
Channels 51
Dwell Time 52
Hop Time 53
Dwell Time Limits 53
FCC Rules affecting FHSS 54
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) 55
How DSSS Works 55
Direct Sequence Systems 55
Channels 56
Effects of Narrow Band Interference 58
FCC Rules affecting DSSS 58
Comparing FHSS and DSSS 58
Narrowband Interference 58
Cost 59
Co-location 59
Equipment compatibility and availability 60
Data rate & throughput 60
Security 61
Standards Support 61
Key Terms 62
Review Questions 63
Answers to Review Questions 68

Chapter 4 Wireless LAN Infrastructure Devices 71
Access Points 72
Access Point Modes 73
Root Mode 74
Bridge Mode 74
Repeater Mode 75
Common Options 76
Fixed or Detachable Antennas 76
Advanced Filtering Capabilities 76
Removable (Modular) Radio Cards 77
Variable Output Power 77
Varied Types of Wired Connectivity 77
Configuration and Management 78
Wireless Bridges 79
Wireless Bridge Modes 80
Root Mode 80
Non-root Mode 81
Access Point Mode 81 Repeater Mode 81
Common Options 82
Fixed or Detachable Antennas 82
Advanced Filtering Capabilities 83
Removable (Modular) Radio Cards 83
Variable Output Power 83
Varied Types of Wired Connectivity 83
Configuration and Management 84
Wireless Workgroup Bridges 84
Common Options 85
Configuration and Management 85
Wireless LAN Client Devices 86
PCMCIA & Compact Flash Cards 86
Wireless Ethernet & Serial Converters 87
USB Adapters 88
PCI & ISA Adapters 88
Configuration and Management 89
Driver Installation 89
Manufacturer Utilities 89
Wireless Residential Gateways 90
Common Options 91
Configuration and Management 92
Enterprise Wireless Gateways 92
Configuration and Management 94
Key Terms 95
Review Questions 96
Answers to Review Questions 100

Chapter 5 Antennas and Accessories 103
RF Antennas 105
Omni-directional (Dipole) Antennas 105
Usage 107
Semi-directional Antennas 108
Usage 109
Highly-directional Antennas 110
Usage 110
RF Antenna Concepts 111
Polarization 111
Gain 113
Beamwidth 113
Free Space Path Loss 114
The 6dB Rule 115
Antenna Installation 115
Placement 115
Mounting 116
Appropriate Use 116
Orientation 116
Alignment 117
Safety 117
Maintenance 118
Power over Ethernet (PoE) Devices 118
Common PoE Options 119 Single-port DC Voltage Injectors 120
Multi-port DC Voltage Injectors 120
Active Ethernet Switches 121
PoE Compatibility 121
Types of Injectors 121
Types of Picker / Taps 122
Voltage and Pinout Standards 122
Fault Protection 122
Wireless LAN Accessories 123
RF Amplifiers 123
Common Options 124
Configuration & Management 125
RF Attenuators 125
Common Options 126
Configuration and Management 127
Lightning Arrestors 127
Common Options 128
Configuration & Maintenance 130
RF Splitters 130
Choosing an RF Splitter 131
RF Connectors 133
Choosing an RF Connector 134
RF Cables 134
RF "Pigtail" Adapter Cable 136
Key Terms 137
Review Questions 138
Answers to Review Questions 142

Chapter 6 Wireless LAN Organizations and 145
Standards 145
Federal Communications Commission 146
ISM and UNII Bands 146
Advantages and Disadvantages of License-Free Bands 147
Industrial Scientific Medical (ISM) Bands 147
900 MHz ISM Band 148
2.4 GHz ISM Band 148
5.8 GHz ISM Band 148
Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure (UNII) Bands 148
Lower Band 149
Middle Band 149
Upper Band 149
Power Output Rules 149
Point-to-Multipoint (PtMP) 149
Point-to-Point (PtP) 150
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 151
IEEE 802.11 152
IEEE 802.11b 152
IEEE 802.11a 153
IEEE 802.11g 153
Major Organizations 154
Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance 154
European Telecommunications Standards Institute 154 Wireless LAN Association 155
Competing Technologies 155
HomeRF 156
Bluetooth 156
Infrared Data Association (IrDA) 157
Infrared 157
Wireless LAN Interoperability Forum (WLIF) 158
Key Terms 159
Review Questions 160
Answers to Review Questions 164

Chapter 7 802.11 Network Architecture 167
Locating a Wireless LAN 168
Service Set Identifier 168
Beacons 168
Time Synchronization 169
FH or DS Parameter Sets 169
SSID Information 169
Traffic Indication Map (TIM) 169
Supported Rates 169
Passive Scanning 169
Active Scanning 171
Authentication & Association 171
Authentication 172
Association 172
States of Authentication & Association 172
Unauthenticated and Unassociated 173
Authenticated and Unassociated 173
Authenticated and Associated 173
Authentication Methods 174
Open System Authentication 174
Shared Key Authentication 175
Authentication Security 176
Shared Secrets & Certificates 176
Emerging Authentication Protocols 177
Service Sets 181
Basic Service Set (BSS) 181
Extended Service Set (ESS) 182
Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS) 182
Roaming 183
Standards 184
Connectivity 185
Reassociation 185
VPN Use 186
Layer 2 & 3 Boundaries 187
Load Balancing 189
Power Management Features 190
Continuous Aware Mode 190
Power Save Polling 191
PSP Mode in a Basic Service Set 191
PSP in an Independent Basic Service Set 192
Key Terms 194 Review Questions 195
Answers to Review Questions 199

Chapter 8 MAC and Physical Layers 201
How Wireless LANs Communicate 202
Wireless LAN Frames vs. Ethernet Frames 202
Collision Handling 203
Fragmentation 204
Dynamic Rate Shifting (DRS) 205
Distributed Coordination Function 206
Point Coordination Function 206
The PCF Process 206
Interframe Spacing 207
Three Types of Spacing 207
Short Interframe Space (SIFS) 208
Point Coordination Function Interframe Space (PIFS) 208
Distributed Coordination Function Interframe Space (DIFS) 208
Slot Times 209
The Communications Process 209
Request to Send/Clear to Send (RTS/CTS) 212
Configuring RTS/CTS 213
Modulation 214
Key Terms 216
Review Questions 217
Answers to Review Questions 221
Troubleshooting Wireless LAN 223

Chapter 9 Installations 223
Multipath 224
Effects of Multipath 225
Decreased Signal Amplitude 225
Corruption 225
Nulling 226
Increased Signal Amplitude 227
Troubleshooting Multipath 228
Solutions for Multipath 229
Hidden Node 230
Troubleshooting Hidden Node 231
Solutions for Hidden Node 232
Use RTS/CTS 232
Increase Power to the Nodes 233
Remove Obstacles 233
Move the Node 233
Near/Far 233
Troubleshooting Near/Far 234
Solutions for Near/Far 235
System Throughput 235
Co-location Throughput (Theory vs. Reality) 236
Theory: What Should Happen 237
Reality: What Does Happen 238
Solutions for Co-location Throughput Problems 239
Use Two Access Points 239
Use 802.11a Equipment 240 Summary 240
Types of Interference 241
Narrowband 241
All-band Interference 243
Weather 244
Wind 244
Stratification 245
Lightning 245
Adjacent Channel and Co-Channel Interference 245
Adjacent Channel Interference 246
Co-channel Interference 247
Range Considerations 248
Transmission Power 249
Antenna Type 249
Environment 249
Key Terms 250
Review Questions 251
Answers to Review Questions 255

Chapter 10 Wireless LAN Security 259
Wired Equivalent Privacy 260
Why WEP Was Chosen 261
WEP Keys 262
Static WEP Keys 263
Centralized Encryption Key Servers 264
WEP Usage 265
Advanced Encryption Standard 266
Filtering 266
SSID Filtering 266
MAC Address Filtering 268
Protocol Filtering 269
Attacks on Wireless LANs 270
Passive Attacks 270
Active Attacks 271
Jamming 272
Man-in-the-middle Attacks 274
Emerging Security Solutions 275
WEP Key Management 275
Wireless VPNs 275
Key Hopping Technologies 276
Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP) 277
AES Based Solutions 277
Wireless Gateways 277
802.1x and Extensible Authentication Protocol 278
Corporate Security Policy 280
Keep Sensitive Information Private 280
Physical Security 281
Wireless LAN Equipment Inventory & Security Audits 281
Using Advanced Security Solutions 282
Public Wireless Networks 282
Limited and Tracked Access 282
Security Recommendations 283 WEP 283
Cell Sizing 283
User Authentication 284
Security Needs 284
Use Additional Security Tools 285
Monitoring for Rogue Hardware 285
Switches, not hubs 285
Wireless DMZ 285
Firmware & Software Updates 286
Key Terms 287
Review Questions 288
Answers to Review Questions 293

Chapter 11 Site Survey Fundamentals 295
What is a Site Survey? 296
Preparing for a Site Survey 297
Facility Analysis 298
Existing Networks 299
Area Usage & Towers 301
Purpose & Business Requirements 302
Bandwidth & Roaming Requirements 303
Available Resources 305
Security Requirements 306
Preparation Exercises 307
Preparation Checklist 307
Site Survey Equipment 308
Access Point 308
PC Card and Utilities 309
Laptops & PDAs 311
Paper 311
Outdoor Surveys 312
Spectrum Analyzer 312
Network Analyzer (a.k.a. "Sniffer") 313
Site Survey Kit Checklist 314
Conducting a Site Survey 316
Indoor Surveys 316
Outdoor Surveys 317
Before You Begin 317
RF Information Gathering 318
Range and Coverage Patterns 319
Data Rate Boundaries 321
Documentation 321
Throughput Tests & Capacity Planning 322
Interference Sources 322
Wired Data Connectivity & AC Power Requirements 325
Outdoor Antenna Placement 326
Spot Checks 327
Site Survey Reporting 327
Report Format 327
Purpose and Business Requirements 328
Methodology 328
PF Coverage Areas 328 Throughput 328
Interference 328
Problem Areas 328
Drawings 329
Hardware placement & configuration information 329
Additional Reporting 330
Key Terms 332
Review Questions 333
Answers to Review Questions 338

Appendix A RF in Perspective 341
RF in Perspective 342
Radio acts like light 342
Light bulb analogy 342
Transmit Range Tests 342
Receive range tests 343
Obstacles 344
Fresnel Zone 344
Increasing power at the tower 345
Reflection 345
RF Summary 345

Glossary 347